Everything about Mamelukes totally explained
A
mamluk (
Arabic: مملوك (singular), مماليك (plural), "owned"; also
transliterated mameluk,
mameluke,
mamaluke, or
mamluke) was a
slave soldier who converted to
Islam and served the
Muslim caliphs and the
Ayyubid sultans during the
Middle Ages. Over time, they became a powerful military
caste, and, on more than one occasion, they seized power for themselves, for example ruling
Egypt in the
Mamluk Sultanate from 1250-1517.
Overview
The first mamluks served the
Abbasid caliphs at the end of the 9th century
Baghdad. The Mamluk system was an evolution of a previous system, the Ghulam system, invented by the Caliph
al-Mu'tasim, in which Turkish prisoners of war became the caliphal guard. This system ended in disaster in the 860s with the murder of four caliphs in a row, and the Mamluk system was created on its ruins. The main difference was that the Mamluks were captured as children and then trained and moulded within the Islamic world to ensure their loyalty to their masters. The Abbasids "recruited" them mainly from areas near the
Caucasus (mainly
Circassian and
Georgian) and in areas north of the
Black Sea (mainly
Turkic, most of whom were
Kipchak Turks) and of
Yoruk background. Most of those captured were of non-Muslim origin. Many mamluks had been sold into slavery by their impoverished
steppe families or kidnapped by slave-traders.
The mamluk system gave rulers troops who had no link to any established power structure. Local non-mamluk warriors were often more loyal to their tribal
sheiks, their families, or nobles than to the
sultan or caliph. If a commander conspired against the ruler, it was often not possible to deal with the conspiracy without causing unrest among the nobility. The mamluk slave-troops were strangers of the lowest possible status who couldn't conspire against the ruler and who could easily be punished if they caused trouble, making them a great military asset. Mamluks were also frequently used as mercenaries.
Organization
After mamluks had converted to Islam, many were trained as
cavalry soldiers. Mamluks had to follow the dictates of
furusiyya, a code that included values such as courage and generosity, and also cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds, etc.
Mamluks lived within their garrisons and mainly spent their time with each other. Their entertainments included sporting events such as archery competitions and presentations of mounted combat skills at least twice a week. The intensive and rigorous training of each new recruit helped ensure continuity of mamluk practices.
While they were no longer actually slaves after training, they were still obliged to serve the Sultan. The Sultan kept them as an outsider force, under his direct command, to use in the event of local tribal frictions. The Sultan could also send them as far as the Muslim regions of
Iberia.
Sultans had the largest number of mamluks, but lesser
amirs could have their own troops as well. Many mamluks rose to high positions throughout the empire, including army command. At first their status remained non-hereditary and sons were strictly prevented from following their fathers. However over time, in places such as Egypt, the mamluk forces became linked to existing power structures and gained significant amounts of influence on those powers.
A similar evolution occurred in the
Ottoman Empire with the
Janissaries.
Mamluk power in Egypt
Origins
The origins of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt lie in the
Ayyubid Dynasty that
Saladin (Salah al-Din) founded in 1174. With his uncle Shirkuh he conquered Egypt for the Zengid King
Nur al-Din of
Damascus in 1169. By 1189, after the capture of Jerusalem, Saladin had consolidated the dynasty's control over the Middle East. After Saladin's death his sons fell to squabbling over the division of the Empire, and each attempted to surround himself with larger expanded mamluk retinues.
By 1200 Saladin's brother
Al-Adil succeeded in securing control over the whole empire by defeating and killing or imprisoning his brothers and nephews in turn. With each victory Al-Adil incorporated the defeated mamluk retinue into his own. This process was repeated at Al-Adil's death in 1218, and at his son Al-Kamil's death in 1238. The Ayyubids became increasingly surrounded by the power of the mamluks and soon involved them in the internal court politics of the kingdom itself.
In 1315 they invaded and conquered a great part of Nubia, but the power remained with a Nubian prince converted from Coptic Orthodox to Islam.
French attack and Mamluk takeover
In June 1249, the
Seventh Crusade under
Louis IX of France landed in Egypt and took
Damietta. The Egyptian troops retreated at first. When the Egyptian sultan
As-Salih Ayyub died, the power passed briefly to his son
Turanshah and then his favorite wife
Shajar Al-Durr (or Shajarat-ul-Dur). She took control with mamluk support and launched a counterattack. Troops of the Bahri commander
Baibars defeated Louis's troops. The king delayed his retreat too long and was captured by the Mamluks in March 1250, and agreed to a ransom of 400,000
livres (150,000 of which were never paid). Political pressure for a male leader made Shajar marry the mamluk commander
Aybak; he was later killed in his bath, and in the power struggle that ensued vice-regent
Qutuz took over. He formally founded the first Mamluk sultanate and the Bahri dynasty.
The first Mamluk dynasty was named Bahri after the name of one of the regiments, the
Bahriya or River Island regiment. The name
Bahri (بحري meaning "of the sea or river") referred to their center in
al-Manial Island in the
Nile. The regiment consisted mainly of
Kipchak Turks.
Mamluks and the Mongols
When the
Mongol troops of
Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad and took over Damascus in 1258, mamluk general
Baibars fled to Cairo. When Hulegu demanded that
Qutuz surrender Cairo, Qutuz had Hulegu's envoys killed and, with Baibars' help, mobilized his troops. Although Hulegu had to leave for the East when great Khan
Möngke died in action against the
Southern Song, he left his lieutenant, the Christian
Kitbuqa, in charge. Qutuz drew the Mongol army into an ambush near the
Orontes River, routed them at the
Battle of Ain Jalut and captured and executed Kitbuqa.
After this great triumph, Qutuz was assassinated by conspiring Mamluks. It was said that Baibars, who seized power, was involved in the assassination. In the following centuries power was often transferred this way: the average reign of a mamluk ruler was seven years.
The mamluks defeated the Mongols a second time in
Homs in 1260 and began to drive them back east. In the process they consolidated their power over Syria, fortified the area, formed mail routes, and formed diplomatic connections between the local princes. Baibars's troops attacked
Acre in 1263, captured
Caesaria in 1265, and massacred the inhabitants of
Antioch in 1268.
Mamluks also defeated new Mongol attacks in Syria in 1271, 1281 (
2nd Battle of Homs), 1303/1304 and 1312. They were defeated by the Mongols and their Christian allies at the
Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299.
Burji dynasty
In 1382, the Bukri or
Burji dynasty took over. Burji (برجي meaning "of the tower") referred to their center in the
citadel of
Cairo. The dynasty consisted mainly of
Circassians.
Ottomans
The Mamluk Sultanate survived until 1517, when it was conquered by the
Ottoman Empire. The institution of the mamluks continued under the Ottomans, although not in the same form as under the Sultanate.
Mamluks independence from the Ottomans
In 1768 Sultan
Ali Bey Al-Kabir declared independence from the Ottomans, but the Mamluks crushed the movement and retained their position after his defeat. By this time new slave recruits were introduced from
Georgia in the Caucasus.
Napoleon defeated Mamluk troops when he attacked Egypt in 1798 and drove them to
Upper Egypt. The Mamluks still used their cavalry charge tactics, changed only by the addition of
muskets.
After the departure of French troops in 1801 Mamluks continued their struggle for independence, this time against the Ottoman Empire and
Great Britain. In 1803 Mamluk leaders
Ibrahim Beg and
Usman Beg wrote a letter to the
Russian consul-general and asked him to act as a mediator with the Sultan as they wanted a cease-fire, and to return to their homeland Georgia. The Russian ambassador in
Istanbul categorically refused to mediate because the Russian government was afraid of allowing Mamluks to return to Georgia, where a strong national liberation movement was on the rise which might have been encouraged by a Mamluk return.
In 1805 the population of Cairo rebelled. There was an excellent opportunity for the Mamluks to seize power, but their internal tension and betrayal by some Mamluks didn't allow them to exploit this opportunity. In 1806 the Mamluks defeated the Turkish forces several times, and in June the rival parties concluded a peace treaty by which
Muhammad Ali, who had been appointed as governor of Egypt on
26 March 1806, was to be removed and the state authority in Egypt returned to the Mamluks. But again, internal tension and conflicts between the clans didn't allow the Mamluks to use this opportunity; Muhammad Ali kept his authority.
End of Mamluk power in Egypt
Muhammed Ali knew that eventually he'd have to deal with the Mamluks if he ever wanted to control Egypt. They were still the feudal owners of Egypt and their land was still the source of wealth and power.
On March 1, 1811,
Muhammed Ali invited all Mamluks to his palace to celebrate the declaration of war against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Between 600 and 700 Mamluks paraded in
Cairo. Near the Al-Azab gates, in a narrow road down from Mukatam Hill, Muhammad Ali's forces ambushed and killed almost all in what came to be known as the
Massacre of the Citadel. According to the tradition, only one Mamluk, named Hasan, survived when he cut his way through the Turks and jumped his horse over a precipice to freedom.
During the following week, hundreds of Mamluks were killed throughout Egypt; in the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1,000 were killed. Throughout Egypt an estimated 3,000 Mamluks and their relatives were killed.
Despite these attempts by Muhammad Ali to defeat the Mamluks in Egypt, a party of them escaped and fled south into what is now
Sudan. In 1811, these Mamluks established a state at
Dunqulah in the
Sennar as a base for their slave trading. In 1820, the sultan of Sennar informed Muhammad Ali that he was unable to comply with a demand to expel the Mamluks. In response, the pasha sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan, clear it of Mamluks, and reclaim it for Egypt. The
pasha's forces received the submission of the kashif, dispersed the Dunqulah Mamluks, conquered
Kordofan, and accepted Sennar's surrender from the last
Funj sultan,
Badi VII.
Offshoots
There were various offshoots of the Mamluks.
India
In 1206 the mamluk commander of the Muslim forces in
India,
Qutb-ud-din Aybak, proclaimed himself sultan, becoming in effect the first independent
Sultan-e-Hind. This
Mamluk dynasty lasted until 1290.
Iraq
The Mamluk corps were first introduced in the part of the
Ottoman Empire that's now
Iraq by
pasha Hasan of
Baghdad in 1702. From 1747 to 1831 Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by the Mamluk officers of
Georgian origin who succeeded in asserting autonomy from the
Sublime Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization of the economy and the military. In 1831 the Ottomans managed to overthrow Daud Pasha, the last Mamluk ruler, and imposed direct control over Iraq.
Under Napoleon
Napoleon formed his own Mamluk corps, the last known Mamluk force, in the early years of the 19th century, and used Mamluks in a number of his campaigns. Even his
Imperial Guard had Mamluk soldiers during the
Belgian campaign, including one of his personal servants. Napoleon's famous bodyguard
Roustan was a Mamluk from Egypt.
One of the pictures by
Francisco de Goya shows a charge of Mamluks against the
Madrilene on
2 May 1808.
Throughout the Napoleonic era there was a special Mamluk corps in the French army. In his history of the 13th Chasseurs Colonel Descaves recounts how Napoleon used the Mamluks in Egypt. In the so-called "Instructions" that Bonaparte gave to Kleber after departure, Napoleon wrote that he'd already bought from Syrian merchants about 2,000 Mamluks with whom he intended to form a special detachment. On 14 September 1799
General Kleber established a mounted company of Mamluk
auxiliaries and Syrian
janissaries from Turks captured at the
siege of Acre.
On 7 July 1800 General Menou reorganized the company, forming 3 companies of 100 men each and renaming it the "Mamluks de la République". In 1801
General Rapp was sent to Marseille to organize a squadron of 250 Mamluks under his command. On 7 January 1802 the previous order was canceled and the squadron reduced to 150 men. The list of effectives on 21 April 1802 reveals 3 officers and 155 other ranks. By decree of 25 December 1803 the Mamluks were organized into a company attached to the Chasseurs-à-Cheval of the Imperial Guard.
Mamluks fought well at the
Battle of Austerlitz on
2 December,
1805, and the regiment was granted a standard and its roster increased to accommodate a standard-bearer and a trumpet. A decree of 15 April 1806 defined the strength of the squadron as 13 officers and 147 privates. Despite the decree of 21 March 1815 that stated that no foreigner could be admitted into the Imperial Guard, Napoleon’s decree of 24 April prescribed amongst other things that the Chasseurs-à-Cheval of the Imperial Guard included a squadron of two companies of Mamluks for the Belgian Campaign.
With the First Restoration, the company of the Mamluks of the Old Guard was incorporated in the Corps Royal des Chasseurs de France. The Mamluks of the Young Guard were incorporated into the 7th Chasseurs-à-Cheval.
Mamluk uniform
During their service in Napoleon’s army, the Mamluk squadron wore the following uniform:
Before
1804: The only "uniform" part was the green cahouk (hat), white turban, and red saroual (trousers), all to be worn with a loose shirt and a vest. Boots were of yellow, red, or tan soft leather. Weapons consisted of an "Oriental"
scimitar, a brace of pistols in a holder decorated with a
brass crescent and star, and a dagger.
After 1804: The cahouk became red with a brass crescent and star, and the shirt was closed and had a collar. The main change was the addition of a "regulation" chasseur-style saddle cloth and roll, imperial green in color, piped red, with a red and white fringe. The saddle and harness remained Arabic in style. The undress uniform was as for the
Chasseurs-à-Cheval of the Guard, but of a dark blue cloth.
Mamluk rulers
In Egypt
1382 az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Barquq, first reign
1389 Hajji II second reign (with honorific title al-Muzaffar or al-Mansur) - Temporary Bahri rule
1390 az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Barquq, Second reign - Burji rule re-established
1399 An-Nasir Nasir Addin Faradj
1405 Al-Mansour Azzaddin Abdal Aziz
1405 An-Nasir Nasir Addin Faradj (second time)
1412 Al-Adel Al-Mustayn (Abbasi Khalef, proclaimed as Sultan)
1412 Al-Muayad Saif Addin Shayh
1421 Al-Muzaffar Ahmad
1421 Az-Zahir Saif Addin Tatar
1421 As-Salih Nasir Addin Muhammad
1422 Al-Ashraf Saif Addin Barsbay
1438 Al-Aziz Djamal Addin Yusuf
1438 Az-Zahir Saif Addin Djakhmak
1453 Al-Mansour Fahr Addin Osman
1453 Al-Ashraf Saif Addin Enal
1461 Al-Muayad Shihab Addin Ahmad
1461 Az-Zahir Saif Addin Khushkadam
1467 Az-Zahir Saif Addin Belbay
1468 Az-Zahir Temurbougha
1468 Al-Ashraf Saif Addin Qaitbay
1496 An-Nasir Muhammad
1498 Az-Zahir Qanshaw
1500 Al-Ashraf Djanbulat
1501 Al-Adel Saif Addin Tumanbay I
1501 Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri
1517 Al-Ashraf Tumanbay II
In India
Qutb-ud-din Aybak (1206–1210)
Aram Shah (1210–1211)
Shams ud din Iltutmish (1211–1236). Son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aybak.
Rukn ud din Firuz (1236). Son of Iltutmish.
Razia Sultana (1236–1240). Daughter of Iltutmish.
Muiz ud din Bahram (1240–1242). Son of Iltutmish.
Ala ud din Masud (1242–1246). Son of Rukn ud din.
Nasir ud din Mahmud (1246–1266). Son of Iltutmish.
Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266–1286). Ex-slave, son-in-law of Iltutmish.
Muiz ud din Qaiqabad(1286–1290). Grandson of Balban and Nasir ud din.
Kayumars (1290). Son of Muiz ud din.
Similar terms
Mameluco is a Portuguese word derived from "mamluk" (also named Mameluco in Spanish), used to identify people of mixed European and Amerindian descent in South America. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Mameluco also referred to organized bands of Portuguese slave-hunters based at São Paulo, known primarily as bandeirantes.
Mameluk was used in Hungary in the last decades of the 19th century as a nickname for Members of Parliament belonging to the governing "Liberal" party. This party governed Hungary for 30 years (1875-1905) and its members in Parliament fulfilled all wishes of party leader and prime minister Kálmán Tisza in order to preserve their parliamentary seats and accompanying privileges.
Officers of the United States Marine Corps carry a ceremonial Mameluke Sword, and Mamluke swords are used by US army in festivals.
Mamluk office titles and terminology
| English |
Arabic |
Notes |
| Alama Sultaniya |
علامة سلطانية |
The mark or signature of the Sultan put on his decrees, letters and documents. |
| Amir |
أمير |
Prince |
| Amir Akhur |
أمير آخور |
supervisor of the royal stable |
| Amir Majlis |
أمير مجلس |
Guard of Sultan's seat and bed |
| Atabek |
أتابك |
Commander in chief |
| Astadar |
أستادار |
Chief of the royal servants |
| Bayt al-Mal |
بيت المال |
treasury |
| Dwadar |
دوادار |
Holder of Sultan's ink bottle |
| Hajib |
حاجب |
Doorkeeper of sultan's court |
| khond |
خند |
Wife of the sultan |
| Jashnakir |
جاشنكير |
Food taster of the sultan (to assure food wasn't poisoned) |
| Jomdar |
جمدار |
An official at the department of the Sultan's clothing |
| Iqta |
إقطاع |
Revenue from land allotment |
| Na'ib Al-Sultan |
نائب السلطان |
Vice-sultan |
| Kafel al-mamalek al-sharifah al-islamiya al-amir al-amri |
كافل الممالك الشريفة الاسلاميةالاميرالأمرى |
Title of the Vice-sultan (The guardian of the dignified Islamic kingdoms the commanding prince) |
| Ostaz |
أستاذ |
Benefactor of Mamluks (the Sultan or the Emir) |
| Qa'at al-insha'a |
قاعة الإنشاء |
Chancery hall |
| Qalat al-Jabal |
قلعة الجبل |
Citadel of the Mountain (the abode and court of the sultan in Cairo) |
| Tebaq |
طباق |
Campus of the Mamluks at the citadel of the mountain |
| Modwarat al-Sultan |
مدورة السلطان |
Sultan's tent which he used during travel. |
| Mamalik Sultaneya |
مماليك سلطانيه |
Mamluks of the sultan;to distinguish from the Mamluks of the Amirs (princes) |
| Mamalik Kitabeya |
مماليك كتابية |
Mamluks still attending training classes and who still live at the Tebaq (campus) |
| al-Nafir al-Am |
النفير العام |
General emergency declared during war
|
| Rank |
رنك |
An emblem that distinguished the rank and position of a Mamluk |
| Mohtaseb |
محتسب |
Controller of markets, public works and local affairs. |
| Qadi al-Qoda |
قاضى القضاة |
Chief justice
|
| Silihdar |
سلحدار |
Arm-Bearer |
| Tawashi |
طواشى |
A Eunuch responsible for serving the wives of the sultan and supervising new Mamluks. |
| Wali |
والى |
viceroy |
| Khaskiya |
خاصكية |
Courtiers of the sultan and most trusted royal mamluks who functioned as the Sultan's bodyguards/ A privileged group around a prominent Amir |
| Qaranisa |
قرانصة |
Mamluks who moved to the service of a new Sultan or from the service of an Amir to a sultan. |
| Khushdashiya |
خشداشية |
Mamluks belonging to the same Amir or Sultan. |
| Jamkiya |
جامكية |
Salary paid to a Mamluk |
| Tashrif |
تشريف |
Head-covering worn by a Mamluk during the ceremony of inauguration to the position of Amir. |
| Sharabkhana |
شرابخانة |
Storehouse for drinks, medicines and glass-wares of the sultan. |
| Tishtkhana |
طشتخانة |
Storehouse used for the laundry of the sultan |
| Barid Jawi |
بريد جوى |
Airmail (mail sent by carrier-pigeons, amplified by Sultan Baibars) |
| Mahkamat al-Mazalim |
محكمة المظالم |
Court of complaint. A court that heard cases of complaints of people against state officials. This court was headed by the sultan himself. |
| Fondok |
فندق |
Hotel (some famous hotels in Cairo during the Mamluk era were Dar al-Tofah, Fondok Bilal and Fondok al-Salih) |
| Khan |
خان |
A store that specialized in selling a certain commodity |
| Qussad |
|
Secret couriers and agents who kept the sultan informed |
| Yook |
|
A large linen closet used in every mamluk home |
| Sanjaqi |
سنجاقى |
A standard-bearer of the Sultan. |
| Morqadar |
مرقدار |
Works in the Royal Kitchen |
| Mushrif |
مشرف |
Supervisor of the Royal Kitchen |
Further Information
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